Research Advances and Future Perspectives of Mycelium-based Composites in Sustainable Packaging

GAO Hainan; YU Xuan; LI Yan; LIU Yongmei; WENG Yunxuan

doi:10.19554/j.cnki.1001-3563.2026.13.014

PDF(8941 KB)

Packaging Engineering ›› 2026, Vol. 47 ›› Issue (13) : 120-130. DOI: 10.19554/j.cnki.1001-3563.2026.13.014

Special Topic on Applications of High-Performance Fibers and Their Composites in Protection and Packaging

Research Advances and Future Perspectives of Mycelium-based Composites in Sustainable Packaging

GAO Hainan^*, YU Xuan, LI Yan, LIU Yongmei^*, WENG Yunxuan

Author information +

History +

Abstract

To address the "white pollution" caused by petroleum-based materials and the environmental pressure from agricultural waste disposal, the work aims to explore the fabrication mechanisms, modification methods, and application status of mycelium-based composites (MBCs) to provide a theoretical reference for the development of novel sustainable packaging materials. The biological characteristics of common fungal species, primarily white-rot fungi were reviewed and the differences between solid-state and liquid-state fermentation processes were compared. The roles of physical modification technologies were highlighted, including freeze-drying and hot-pressing, as well as chemical modification strategies such as covalent cross-linking and multi-phase compositing, in reinforcing the three-dimensional mycelial network and improving the mechanical and barrier properties of MBCs. Furthermore, the recent application progress of MBCs in fields including eco-friendly leather, smart aerogel packaging, and 3D printing substrates was summarized. With advantages such as low energy consumption, zero pollution, and tunable functionality, MBCs demonstrate broad development prospects in the fields of green packaging and agricultural resource utilization.

Key words

mycelium-based composites / sustainable packaging / bio-based materials / resource utilization

Cite this article

EndNote

Ris (Procite)

Bibtex

Download Citations

GAO Hainan, YU Xuan, LI Yan, LIU Yongmei, WENG Yunxuan. Research Advances and Future Perspectives of Mycelium-based Composites in Sustainable Packaging[J]. Packaging Engineering. 2026, 47(13): 120-130 https://doi.org/10.19554/j.cnki.1001-3563.2026.13.014

References

[1] CERIMI K, AKKAYA K C, POHL C, et al.Fungi as Source for New Bio-Based Materials: A Patent Review[J]. Fungal Biology and Biotechnology, 2019, 6(1): 17.
[2] ANGELOVA G V, BRAZKOVA M S, KRASTANOV A I.Renewable Mycelium Based Composite-Sustainable Approach for Lignocellulose Waste Recovery and Alternative to Synthetic Materials a Review[J]. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C, 2021, 76(11/12): 431-442.
[3] ALEMU D, TAFESSE M, MONDAL A K.Mycelium-Based Composite: The Future Sustainable Biomaterial[J]. International Journal of Biomaterials, 2022, 2022: 8401528.
[4] SHIN H J, RO H S, KAWAUCHI M, et al.Review on Mushroom Mycelium-Based Products and Their Production Process: From Upstream to Downstream[J]. Bioresources and Bioprocessing, 2025, 12(1): 3.
[5] PARHIZI Z, DEARNALEY J, KAUTER K, et al.The Fungus among Us: Innovations and Applications of Mycelium-Based Composites[J]. Journal of Fungi, 2025, 11(8): 549.
[6] AIDUANG W, CHANTHALUCK A, KUMLA J, et al.Amazing Fungi for Eco-Friendly Composite Materials: A Comprehensive Review[J]. Journal of Fungi, 2022, 8(8): 842.
[7] SCHYCK S, MARCHESE P, AMANI M, et al.Harnessing Fungi Signaling in Living Composites[J]. Global Challenges, 2024, 8(8): 2400104.
[8] LUO D L, YANG J C, PEEK N.3D-Printed Mycelium Biocomposites: Method for 3D Printing and Growing Fungi-Based Composites[J]. 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing, 2025, 12(2): 98-111.
[9] KAISER R, BRIDGENS B, ELSACKER E, et al.BioKnit: Development of Mycelium Paste for Use with Permanent Textile Formwork[J]. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 2023, 11: 1229693.
[10] BALAN V, ZHU W H, KRISHNAMOORTHY H, et al.Challenges and Opportunities in Producing High-Quality Edible Mushrooms from Lignocellulosic Biomass in a Small Scale[J]. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2022, 106(4): 1355-1374.
[11] LÓPEZ-GARCÍA C L, LEGORRETA-CASTAÑEDA A J, SANSÓN-TEMICH R, et al. Design of Solid-State Fermentation Systems for Polymer Hydrolytic Extracellular Enzyme Production by Filamentous Fungi[J]. Journal of Visualized Experiments, 2025(220): e68296.
[12] TODOROV S K, TOMASIKOVA F, HANSEN M, et al.Using Pre-Fermented Sugar Beet Pulp as a Growth Medium to Produce Pleurotus Ostreatus Mycelium for Meat Alternatives[J]. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 2024, 425: 110872.
[13] JONES M, GANDIA A, JOHN S, et al.Leather-Like Material Biofabrication Using Fungi[J]. Nature Sustainability, 2021, 4(1): 9-16.
[14] UMAR A, ABID I, ELSHIKH M S, et al.Agitation Role (Dissolved Oxygen) in Production of Laccase from Newly Identified Ganoderma Multistipitatum Sp. Nov. An d Its Effect on Mycelium Morphology[J]. BMC Microbiology, 2023, 23(1): 280.
[15] D’ERRICO A, SCHRÖPFER M, MONDSCHEIN A, et al. Cross-Linking Impacts the Physical Properties of Mycelium Leather Alternatives by Targeting Hydroxyl Groups of Polysaccharides and Amino Groups of Proteins[J]. Heliyon, 2024, 10(16): e36263.
[16] KANG C, ZHENG X, WANG W K, et al.Biological Characteristics of the Mycelium and Optimization of the Culture Medium for Phallus dongsun[J]. Polish Journal of Microbiology, 2024, 73(2): 237-252.
[17] CASTRO ARMENDÁRIZ G A, MEZA-DE LUNA A. Towards Sustainable Roofing in Mexico: Potential of Mycelium-Based Composites to Replace EPS as Prefabricated Lightweight Vaults[J]. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 2026, 53: 1-18.
[18] KITIWAN M, TANGTHIRASUNUN N, TUNTHAWIROON P. Development of Sustainable Biomaterials Composites from Waste Materials (Spent Mushroom Compost, Garlic Shell,Water Hyacinth) with Edible Mushroom Mycelium-Based[J]. International Journal of Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture, 2026, 15(2): 10(6): 20.
[19] HEINZE A A, VIERES L, YOUN-ČALE B Y, et al. Substrate-Based Mycelium Materials for Applications in Building Insulation: Investigation of Mechanical Properties[J]. MRS Advances, 2025, 10(17): 2090-2095.
[20] VAKERI S M, SINHA A, GRECA L G, et al.Living Sand: Microbial Nanocellulose and Chitin-Rich Mycelia Enhance Granular Material Properties[J]. Carbohydrate Polymers, 2025, 370: 124361.
[21] SONG X, CHEN S, WU J, et al.The Effects of the Substrate Length and Cultivation Time on the Physical and Mechanical Properties of Mycelium-Based Cushioning Materials from Salix Psammophila and Peanut Straw[J]. Biomimetics, 2025, 10(6): 20.
[22] DE ANDA-RODRÍGUEZ F A, CORONA-RAMÍREZ M R, PATIÑO-ARÉVALO C D, et al. Mycomaterials from Agave Bagasse: A Valorization Strategy for Sustainable Tequila Packaging[J]. Fermentation, 2025, 11(9): 18.
[23] ENRIQUEZ-MEDINA I, RODAS-ORTIZ I, BEDOYA-GARCIA I, et al.Bridging Gap between Agro-Industrial Waste, Biodiversity and Mycelium-Based Biocomposites: Understanding Their Properties by Multiscale Methodology[J]. Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts, 2024, 9(4): 495-507.
[24] SAYFUTDINOVA A R, CHEREDNICHENKO K A, RAKITINA M A, et al.Natural Fibrous Materials Based on Fungal Mycelium Hyphae as Porous Supports for Shape-Stable Phase-Change Composites[J]. Polymers, 2023, 15(23): 4504.
[25] WHABI V, YU B, XU J P.From Nature to Design: Tailoring Pure Mycelial Materials for the Needs of tomorrow[J]. Journal of Fungi, 2024, 10(3): 183.
[26] DEVANTHI P V P, PRATAMA F, PRAMANDA I T, et al. Exploring the Potential of Aspergillus oryzae for Sustainable Mycoprotein Production Using Okara and Soy Whey as Cost-Effective Substrates[J]. Journal of Fungi, 2024, 10(8): 555.
[27] CERRONE F, O’CONNOR K E. Cultivation of Filamentous Fungi in Airlift Bioreactors: Advantages and Disadvantages[J]. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2025, 109(1): 41.
[28] LU X H, WANG M Y, ZHAO Z Z, et al.Effect of Different Pretreatment of Birch Sawdust on the Production of Active Polysaccharides by Inonotus Obliquus under Submerged Fermentation and Its Structural Mechanism[J]. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 2021, 193(5): 1545-1557.
[29] AIDUANG W, PATIPATTANAKUL T, KEDUK Y, et al.Looking at the Possibility of Using Mushroom Mycelium for Developing Leather-Like Materials Aligned with Eco-Friendly and Sustainable Fashion Trends[J]. Life, 2025, 15(11): 1746.
[30] SCHODER K A, KRÜMPEL J, MÜLLER J, et al. Effects of Environmental and Nutritional Conditions on Mycelium Growth of Three Basidiomycota[J]. Mycobiology, 2024, 52(2): 124-134.
[31] LIADI M A, AYODELE T O, TIJANI A, et al.From Biomass to Biofabrication: Advances in Substrate Treatment Technologies for Fungal Mycelium Composites[J]. Clean Technologies, 2026, 8(2): 30.
[32] RINCÓN E, NEJATI M, ZHA L, et al. Enhancing Wound Dressing Efficiency: Cellulose Nanofiber Sponges Loaded with Ganoderma Lucidum Mycelium Fractions[J]. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 2026, 337: 149401.
[33] MOTAMEDI S, ROUSSE D R, PROMIS G.Microstructure-Driven Hygrothermal Behavior of Mycelium-Based Composites for Bio-Based Insulation[J]. Energies, 2025, 18(11): 25.
[34] GEORGE K, RODRÍGUEZ-GRAU G, MANIKANDAN V S, et al. Engineering Functional Mycelium-Based Composites: Innovations in Thermal and Acoustic Insulation[J]. Composites Part B: Engineering, 2026, 315: 113470.
[35] SUN W J, TAJVIDI M, HOWELL C, et al.Functionality of Surface Mycelium Interfaces in Wood Bonding[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2020, 12(51): 57431-57440.
[36] LI S L, CAO S, WANG X D, et al.Investigating the Mechanism of Zn Cross-Linking of Chitin in a Mycelium-Based Leather Substitute and Its Performance Evaluation[J]. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 2024, 276: 133954.
[37] RAMAN J, KIM D S, KIM H S, et al.Mycofabrication of Mycelium-Based Leather from Brown-Rot Fungi[J]. Journal of Fungi, 2022, 8(3): 317.
[38] CHEN H Y, ABDULLAYEV A, BEKHEET M F, et al.Extrusion-Based Additive Manufacturing of Fungal-Based Composite Materials Using the Tinder Fungus Fomes Fomentarius[J]. Fungal Biology and Biotechnology, 2021, 8(1): 21.
[39] ZHOU T, BAI Y T, ZHANG H X, et al.Flexible Hollow-Structured Reinforced Mycelium Insulation Material and Its Performance[J]. Advanced Materials Technologies, 2025, 10(14): 2500315.
[40] LU X X, LIU X F, SUN Y, et al.Discovery of Novel Inhibitors Targeting the pHDomain of PcORP1: Virtual Screening, Structural Optimization, Biological Evaluation[J]. European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 2025, 296: 117900.
[41] XU R L, UNIVERSITY N A, MA J H, et al.Study on Dehydroabietic Acid-Based Schiff Derivatives from Natural Rosin as Potential Antifungal Agents[J]. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2025, 73(29): 18131-18140.
[42] MUHEDANER M, SONG Z Q, CHEN C P, et al.Tentative Exploration of the 3D Printing Performance of the Mixed Inks with Egg White Proteins and Mycoprotein Fibrous to Improve the Quality of Mycoprotein Alternatives[J]. Food Chemistry, 2025, 466: 142202.
[43] TEWARI S, SINGH P, RESHAMWALA S M S, et al. Fabrication of Cotton-Mycelium Based Biocomposite (CMBB) via Submerged Fermentation for Sustainable Vegan Leather: A Novel Green Approach[J]. Bioresource Technology, 2026, 441: 133624.
[44] PERTILE B, FONTANA R C, ISOTON R, et al.Mycelium-Based Products: Multifunctional Flexible Mycomaterial, a Textile Alternative Produced from Fungi and Lignocellulose Waste[J]. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2025, 41(7): 265.
[45] SHARMA M, LIM L T, KAUR G.Tailoring Structure-Property Relationships of Fungal Mycelium for Material Applications: A Process Engineering Approach for Pure Mycelium-Based Biomaterials[J]. New Biotechnology, 2026, 91: 156-169.
[46] TONG J T, GAO H N, WENG Y X, et al.Anisotropic Aerogels with Excellent Mechanical Resilience and Thermal Insulation from Pleurotus Eryngii Fungus[J]. Macromolecular Materials and Engineering, 2023, 308(4): 2200538.
[47] WEN X R, ZHEN Y X, YANG R Z, et al.Anthocyanin-Functionalized Hydrophobic Cellulose Aerogels as Sensitive Colorimetric Indicators to Monitor Shrimp Freshness[J]. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 2025, 316: 144604.
[48] LIU Y H, WANG L Z, ZHAN Z R, et al.Ammonium Alginate and Cellulose Nanofiber-Based Sea Anemone Tentacle-Inspired Colorimetric Gas-Sensitive Aerogel Enabling Ultra-Sensitive Ammonia Visual Detection[J]. Carbohydrate Polymers, 2025, 370: 124435.
[49] SAINI R, KAUR G, BRAR S K.Textile Residue-Based Mycelium Biocomposites from Pleurotus Ostreatus[J]. Mycology, 2024, 15(4): 683-689.
[50] SUN W, TAJVIDI M, HUNT C G.Fungal Mycelia as Bioadhesives[M]. Biobased Adhesives, 2023: 463-475.
[51] ABDALLAH Y K, ESTÉVEZ A T. Biowelding 3D-Printed Biodigital Brick of Seashell-Based Biocomposite by Pleurotus Ostreatus Mycelium[J]. Biomimetics, 2023, 8(6): 504.
[52] SHARMA D, LE FERRAND H.3D Printed Gyroid Scaffolds Enabling Strong and Thermally Insulating Mycelium-Bound Composites for Greener Infrastructures[J]. Nature Communications, 2025, 16: 5775.
[53] AKIB Y M, BEDSOLE C O, SANDERS J, et al.Binder Jetting 3D Printing of Biomass-Fungi Composite Materials: A Preliminary Experimental Study[J]. Biomimetics, 2025, 10(7): 441.
[54] ASHRAF M U, HZAMI A, ALGHAMRI R, et al.Systematic Review of Mycelium-Based Composites as Sustainable Insulators for Carbon-Neutral Building Envelopes[J]. International Journal of Sustainable Engineering, 2026, 19(1): 2665914.