The work aims to develop ultra-fine glass fiber board materials with lightweight and excellent sound insulation characteristics for ship cabins, and design composite structures to achieve the best performance. The ultra-fine glass fiber with high porosity and high surface area was prepared by centrifugal method, and the sound insulation performance of the ultra-fine glass fiber composite lining board was tested based on the sound absorption coefficient and sound insulation test system of SZZB-4 transfer function method, and the influence of the type, thickness, glass fiber density and core composite structure on the sound insulation effect of the lining board was studied. The average diameter of the prepared glass fiber was only 2.5 μm. Compared with the current rock wool board, the glass fiber could greatly improve the internal surface area and porosity, and make the sound wave loss in the board more. When the density of glass fiber was increased to 140 kg/m3, the acoustic impedance value was increased by 38% compared with the traditional material, and the closed microcavity structure formed by the honeycomb aluminum (FWL) intermediate layer made the average sound insulation of 50 mm thick lining board reach 53.52 dB (18.9% higher than the rock wool board), and the surface density was reduced to 18.3 kg/m2. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) microscopic analysis revealed that the compressive strength of the fiber cross-linked network increased to 0.38 MPa, meeting the mechanical requirements for marine components in ISO 717-1. The sound insulation of the composite core material with FWL structure reached 59.28 dB in the frequency band of 1 000 Hz, and the impact toughness was increased by 27%. The developed material system successfully realizes the collaborative optimization of sound insulation performance, lightweight and structural strength, and provides a solution with both engineering practicability and environmental adaptability for ship cabin noise control.